The population projections contained in Indicator 1.1 are based upon the United Nation’s medium variant for fertility.
In 2000, the United Nations adopted a series of eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s) setting targets for the achievement of significant improvements in the well-being of the world’s population by 2015.
Target 4.A of the fourth MDG set the target of reducing by two-thirds the under-five mortality rate in developing regions between 1990 and 2015.
Target 1.A of the first MDG set the objective of reducing by half the proportion of the population of developing regions living in extreme poverty over the 1990-2015 period. The target originally defined extreme poverty as people whose income is less than $1 a day, but this was revised in 2008 to $1.25 a day, measured in 2005 international prices adjusted for purchasing power parity.
Target 1.B of the first MDG sets the objective of achieving full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people.
The eight MDG refers to the development of a global partnership for development. This includes the provision of a target 0.7% of Gross National Income as net official development assistance by member states of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD. Overall assistance includes bilateral development projects, programmes and technical cooperation; multilateral ODA; humanitarian aid; and net debt relief.
The second UN MDG set the objective of achieving universal participation in primary education by 2015.
The net enrolment rate (NER) in primary education is the number of children of official primary school age who are enrolled in primary education expressed as a percentage of the total population of children of official primary school age.
Some children of primary school age might enter primary school early and advance to secondary school before they reach the official upper age limit of primary education. The NER does not include those children, under-estimating the number of children who actually receive a full course of primary education.
To overcome this limitation, this report uses an adjusted net enrolment rate in primary education. This is calculated as the number of children of official primary school age who are enrolled in primary or secondary education expressed as a percentage of the total population of children of official primary school age.
Climate change refers to significant change in the measures of climate, such as temperature, rainfall, or wind over a long period of time. Greenhouse gases are those gases which contribute to the global warming or greenhouse effect. Seven greenhouse gases are regulated. These are:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC)
• Perfluorocarbons (PFC)
• Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)
• Nitrogen Trifluoride (NF3)
Carbon Dioxide is the most important of the greenhouse gases as it is currently responsible for just over 60% of the greenhouse effect.
Each of these gases is regulated by global environmental agreements: the Kyoto Protocol running from 2008-2012; A second Kyoto Commitment Period running from 2013-2020; and an agreement signed in Paris in 2015 which comes into force in 2020. Indicator 1.7 shows the trend in greenhouse gas emissions by countries specified in the Annex II of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change over the 1990-2014 period. Annex II countries include all developed countries in the OECD which are expected to provide financial resources to assist developing countries to comply with their obligations.
General government consolidated gross debt at nominal value is the standardised measure of indebtedness of EU governments. The general government sector comprises the sub-sectors of central government, local government, and social security funds. The debt of commercial State companies/public corporations is excluded. It takes account of all liabilities included in the traditional national definition of National Debt, without any offsetting of liquid assets, together with the liabilities of non-commercial State agencies and local authorities.
General government balance (GGB) is the standard European measure of the fiscal balance, which is used to monitor compliance with the Stability and Growth Pact. It is defined in the EU regulation governing reporting of deficit and debt levels for the Excessive Deficit Procedure as net lending / net borrowing adjusted for the impact on debt interest of transactions in interest rate swaps.
Note that, as only those inflows and outflows which affect financial net worth count as revenue and expenditure in this calculation, the EDP net lending / net borrowing is also equivalent to the change in the financial net worth of General Government due to transactions in financial assets and liabilities.
Net national receipts from the EU are calculated by subtracting an individual Member State’s total revenue from the EU from its total contribution. Own resources provide the EU's main revenue. There are three kinds of own resources:
• Own resource from value added tax (VAT): A standard percentage is levied on the harmonised VAT base of each EU country. The VAT base to be taxed is capped at 50% of GNI for each country. This rule is intended to prevent less prosperous countries having to pay a disproportionate amount (in such countries consumption – and so VAT – tend to account for a higher percentage of national income).
• Own resource based on gross national income (GNI): A standard percentage is levied on the GNI of each EU country. It is used to balance revenue and expenditure, i.e. to fund the part of the budget not covered by other sources of income. Although designed simply as a balancing system, this has become the largest source of revenue.
• Other revenues: The budget also has other sources of revenue, e.g.: taxes on EU staff salaries, contributions from non-EU countries to certain programmes and fines on companies for breaching competition laws, etc.
Exchequer taxes account for the majority of the revenue in the Exchequer balance, which is the traditional domestic budgetary aggregate which measures the central government’s net surplus borrowing position.
General government refers to all arms of government, and, in Ireland’s case includes central government, local authorities, the HSE, VECs, non-commercial semi-state bodies, the social insurance fund, and the national pension reserve fund.
A married couple where both members have elected or have been deemed to have elected for joint assessment is counted as one tax unit and the incomes of both members are aggregated in the statistics. For this reason, the text accompanying Table 2.6 refers to ‘cases’ rather than persons.
Most public sector workers benefit from unfunded pension schemes. In line with international accounting conventions, the wages of these workers are increased by an estimate of the amount that the employer would have to contribute if these pensions were actually being funded. This is calculated as the actuarial value of the pension entitlements accrued by employees in respect of their year’s work less any pension contributions actually paid by these employees.
Gross domestic expenditure on research and development (R&D) is composed of: Business enterprise expenditure in R&D; Higher Education expenditure in R&D; Government expenditure in R&D; and Private non-profit expenditure in R&D. Investment in research and development made outside of Ireland by foreign companies with subsidiaries based in Ireland is not included in the figures for Ireland.
Fixed assets are produced tangible or intangible assets that are used in the production process for more than one year. Gross fixed capital formation consists of producers’ acquisitions less disposals of fixed assets.
Households and Non-Profit Institutions Serving Households consist of persons in their capacity as holders of financial assets or as borrowers. The business assets and liabilities of unincorporated self-employed persons are also mainly reflected in this sector. Large autonomous unincorporated enterprises (quasi-corporations) are in principle included in the non-financial corporations sector.
Non-Profit Institutions Serving Households consist of non-profit institutions such as charities and non-commercial agencies not owned by the government, such as some schools and hospitals.
General Government consists of central and local government and the social security fund. Central government includes the National Pension Reserve Fund, and non-commercial agencies owned and funded by government, but does not include commercial state-owned companies (which are proper to Non-Financial Corporations or Financial Corporations as appropriate).
Financial Corporations are corporate bodies producing financial services on a commercial basis. As with Non-Financial Corporations they can take various legal forms, with a range of ownership arrangements.
Non-Financial Corporations are corporate bodies producing goods and non-financial services on a commercial basis. They include public limited companies, private companies and other corporate forms of business, whether owned by residents (including the government) or non-residents or both. In particular, therefore, Irish subsidiaries of foreign companies and the Irish branches of foreign companies operating in Ireland on a branch basis are included; while the foreign subsidiaries of Irish companies and the foreign branches of Irish companies operating abroad are excluded (they form part of the rest of the world sector).
Harmonised indices of consumer prices (HICPs) give comparable measures of inflation for the countries and country groups where they are produced. They are economic indicators that measure the change over time of the prices of consumer goods and services acquired by households. They are a set of consumer price indices (CPIs) calculated according to a harmonised approach and a single set of definitions. In particular, HICPs provide the official measure of consumer price inflation in the euro area for the purposes of monetary policy and the assessment of inflation convergence as required under the Maastricht criteria.
The dwelling completions data series is based on the number of new dwellings, including apartments and houses, connected by ESB Networks to the electricity supply. These represent the number of homes completed and available and do not reflect any work-in progress. ESB Networks have indicated that there was a higher backlog in work-in-progress in 2005 than usual (estimated as being in the region of 5,200 units). This backlog was cleared through the connection of an additional 2,000 houses in Quarter 1 2006 and 3,000 houses in Quarter 2 2006.
The Residential Property Price Index (RPPI) is designed to measure the change in the average level of prices paid for residential properties sold in Ireland. The index is mix-adjusted to allow for the fact that different types of property are sold in different periods. The RPPI is compiled using stamp duty returns matched with Building Energy Rating (BER) data, the GeoDirectory and census Small Area Population Statistics (SAPS). These various data sources provide details on the characteristics of properties bought (such as building type and size), their geographic characteristics (precise location and relative affluence/deprivation of neighbourhood) and the price paid. It is transactions based; meaning that prices are recorded only if a sale occurs.
The employment rate is based on International Labour Organisation definitions used by the CSO’s Quarterly National Household Survey. It is calculated as the number of persons employed aged 15-64 expressed as a percentage of the total population aged 15 to 64. Persons are considered as being in in employment if they have worked in the week before the QNHS for one hour or more for payment or profit, including work on the family farm or business or who had a job but were not at work because of illness, holidays etc. in the week.
The definition of unemployment used before 1998 was based on the concept of Principal Economic Status for persons aged 15 years and over. From 1998 onwards, the definition of unemployment has been taken from the International Labour Organisation and refers to persons aged 15-74 years who were without work, available for work, and had taken steps in the previous four weeks to find work. The unemployment rate is the number of persons unemployed as a percentage of the labour force (i.e. those in work and those unemployed). The unemployment rate was based on the Labour Force Survey up-to 1997 and on the Quarterly National Household Survey (QNHS) since then. The annual figure since 1998 is based on Quarter two QNHS statistics rather than an annual average figure.
Households which are considered to be at risk of poverty have a household income below a given percentage (usually 60%) of the national median income. The rate is calculated by ranking households by income from smallest to largest and the median or middle value is extracted. A household with an income of less than 60% of the median is considered to be at risk of poverty at a 60% level.
The old age dependency ratio is calculated by dividing the estimated population aged 65 years and over by the estimated population aged 15 to 64. The figures presented are based on annual population estimates calculated by the CSO.
Life Tables are constructed from graduated single year of age mortality rates (i.e. mortality divided by population estimate). In the case of Ireland the following approach is applied:
• A Census of Population, undertaken every five years, is used to represent mid-year exposure-to-risk and to readily identify population changes and;
• For the mortality data, the CSO follows the traditional approach of averaging the data on the three years centred on a particular Census year, in order to reduce the impact of exceptional mortality events in a Census year on life table estimates.
In addition, the single year of age mortality rates are graduated using a self-adaptive B-Spline model.
The pupil-teacher ratio at primary level is calculated by dividing total enrolment in all National schools as of 30th September in a given academic year by the number of full-time equivalent teaching posts at primary level.
The pupil-teacher ratio at second level is calculated by dividing total full-time enrolment in all second level schools as of 30th September in a given academic year by the number of full-time equivalent teaching posts at second level.
Information on class size is collected for primary and lower secondary education in the European Union. The data collection is limited to these two levels of education because differences across countries in the organisation of the educational systems are considered manageable at these levels.
The average class size is in principle the total number of pupils divided by the total number of classes. Students attending special needs programmes and such classes are excluded.
A class is in the data collection referred to as a ‘division’ made up of students who follow a common course of study. Students can, for parts of the teaching, be divided into sub-groups or be enrolled in other partitions. The data collection does not take notice of such groups or partitions but include only the more stable notion of classes (divisions).
The 2011 version of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011) is used for the table on third level education and incorporates 8 levels of education:
ISCED 2011 level 0 - Early childhood education: Programmes at this level are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children’s early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development and introduce young children to organised instruction outside the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to those early childhood programmes that have an intentional education component. These programmes aim to develop socio-emotional skills necessary for participation in school and society and to develop some of the skills needed for academic readiness and to prepare them for entry to primary education.
ISCED 2011 level 1 - Primary: Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide students with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy), and to establish a sound foundation for learning and understanding of core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, preparing for lower secondary education. It focuses on learning at a basic level of complexity with little if any specialisation.
ISCED 2011 level 2 - Lower Secondary: Programmes at this level are typically designed to build upon the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Usually the educational aim is to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and human development on which education systems may systematically expand further educational opportunities. Some education systems may already offer vocational education programmes at ISCED level 2 to provide individuals with skills relevant to employment.
ISCED 2011 level 3 – Upper Secondary: Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education, or to provide skills relevant to employment, or both.
ISCED 2011 level 4 – Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary: Post-secondary non-tertiary education provides learning experiences building on secondary education and preparing for labour market entry as well as tertiary education. It aims at the individual acquisition of knowledge, skills and competencies below the high level of complexity characteristic of tertiary education. Programmes at ISCED level 4 are typically designed to provide individuals who completed ISCED level 3 with non-tertiary qualifications that they require for progression to tertiary education or employment when their ISCED level 3 qualification does not grant such access.
ISCED 2011 level 5 – Short-Cycle Tertiary: Programmes at this level are often designed to provide participants with professional knowledge, skills and competencies. Typically they are practically based, occupationally specific and prepare students to enter the labour market. However, programmes may also provide a pathway to other tertiary education programmes. Academic tertiary education programmes below the level of a bachelor programme or equivalent are also classified as ISCED level 5.
ISCED 2011 level 6 – Bachelor or equivalent: Programmes at this level are often designed to provide participants with intermediate academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a first degree or equivalent qualification. Programmes at this level are typically theoretically based but may include practical components and are informed by state of the art research and/or best professional practice. They are traditionally offered by universities and equivalent tertiary educational institutions.
ISCED 2011 level 7 – Master or equivalent: Programmes at this level are often designed to provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a second degree or equivalent qualification. Programmes at this level may have a substantial research component, but do not yet lead to the award of a doctoral qualification. Typically, programmes at this level are theoretically based but may include practical components and are informed by state of the art research and/or best professional practice. They are traditionally offered by universities and other tertiary educational institutions.
ISCED 2011 level 8 – Doctoral or equivalent: Programmes at this level are designed primarily to lead to an advanced research qualification. Programmes at this level are devoted to advanced study and original research and typically offered only by research-oriented tertiary educational institutions such as universities. Doctoral programmes exist in both academic and professional fields.
The figures presented in these tables include only those for whom there is an answer to the specific question, and therefore, categories “none” or “not stated” are omitted.
This is measured as the percentage of the population aged 18 years and over with a body mass index ≥30.00 kg/m2.
According to the United Nations, total alcohol per capita consumption (APC) is defined as the total recorded and unrecorded volume of pure alcohol consumed per person aged 15 years and over during a calendar year.
The annual recorded alcohol consumption is based on a three year average. To calculate the recorded APC in litres of pure alcohol, the following conversion factors are applied to specific beverage categories: Beer (barley beer 5%), Wine (grape wine 12%; must of grape 9%; vermouth 16%), Spirits (distilled spirits 40%: spirit-like 30%), and Other (sorghum, millet, maize beers 5%; Cider 5%; fortified wine 17% and 18%; fermented wheat and fermented rice 9%; other fermented beverages 9%).
Unrecorded alcohol consumption refers to alcohol which is not taxed and is outside the usual system of governmental control, such as home or informally produced alcohol (legal or illegal), smuggled alcohol, surrogate alcohol not intended for human consumption), or alcohol obtained through cross-border shopping (which is recorded in a different jurisdiction).
European data for this indicator were collected from the European Health Interview Survey (EHIS) on health status, health care and health determinants. This survey is conducted nationally every five years and covers the population aged 15 years or over living in private households and residing in the territory of EU member states. Data are collected via questionnaires and are obtained through face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, self-administered questionnaires or by a combination of these means (depending on the country).The data refers to both daily and occasional smokers.
The Irish version of EHIS was called the Irish Health Survey and it was designed to be consistent with EHIS. This survey was conducted by the CSO as a module of its Quarterly National Household Survey in 2015.
There are many sources of particulate matter (dust) including vehicle exhaust emissions, soil and road surfaces, construction works, and industrial emissions. Particulate matter can be formed from reactions between different pollutant gases. Small particles can penetrate the lungs and cause damage. These are known as PM10 (diameter less than 10µm) and PM2.5 (diameter less than 2.5µm). There are high levels of PM10 in many cities and towns. In smokeless fuel zones, levels of particulate matter decreased after the ban on bituminous coal in Dublin in 1990 and which was extended to other parts of Ireland subsequently.
PM2.5 has similar effects on health as PM10. However, PM2.5 is a better indicator of anthropogenic (man-made) emissions than PM10. Fine particulate matter PM2.5 is responsible for significant negative impacts on human health. Further, there is as yet no identifiable threshold below which PM2.5 would not pose a risk.
The Directive (EU) 2016/2284 (New National Emissions Ceilings Directive) on the reduction of national emissions of certain atmospheric pollutants, amending Directive 2003/35/EC and repealing Directive 2001/81/EC (old NEC Directive) entered in to force on the 31st of December 2016. This new legislative act harmonises the reporting obligations to the European Union with the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP). Article 4(1) of Directive 2016/2284 and Annex II, sets out new national emission reduction commitments for PM2.5 applicable from 2020 to 2029 and 2030 onwards.
National total emissions of particulate matter PM2.5 differ from the figures in the last Sustainable Development Indicators report. Reduced use of coal and peat with increased use of gasoil, kerosene and natural gas resulted in lower emissions for the residential and commercial sectors after 1990. Emissions from agriculture arising from manure management and inorganic N-fertilisers are included for the first time in the data. The methodology used for estimating emissions of PM2.5 from transport has also been revised while emissions from coal mining and ferroalloys production were also reported for the first time in the EPA’s 2015 Submission to Eurostat.
Directive 2001/81/EC of the European Parliament and the Council on National Emission Ceilings for certain pollutants (NEC Directive) sets upper limits for each Member State for the total emissions in 2010 of the four pollutants responsible for acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone pollution (sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and ammonia), but leaves it largely to the Member States to decide which measures – on top of Community legislation for specific source categories - to take in order to comply. Ireland’s limits are as follows:
|
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) |
42 kilotonnes |
|
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) |
65 kilotonnes |
|
NMVOC’s |
55 kilotonnes |
|
Ammonia (NH3) |
116 kilotonnes |
The main source of sulphur dioxide in Ireland is burning coal and oil to heat homes and industries and to produce electricity. It is an irritant gas which attacks the throat and lungs. Prolonged exposure can lead to increases in respiratory illnesses like chronic bronchitis. It contributes to the formation of acid rain which damages vegetation and buildings.
Levels have decreased over recent years due to increased use of low-sulphur "smokeless" coal, increased use of natural gas instead of solid fuels, and reduced industrial emissions through Integrated Pollution Prevention Control (IPPC) licensing.
Emissions from traffic are the main source of nitrogen oxides in Ireland along with electricity generating stations and industry. Nitrogen dioxide can affect the throat and lungs. The main effects are emphysema and cellular damage. It is also aesthetically unpleasant as it has a brown colour and gives rise to a brown haze. Oxides of nitrogen contribute to the formation of acid rain and ozone.
Ammonia (NH3) emissions are associated with acid deposition and the formation of secondary particulate matter. The agriculture sector accounts for virtually all ammonia emissions in Ireland. Grasslands ultimately receive the bulk of the 40 million tonnes of animal manures produced annually in Ireland along with over 300,000 tonnes of nitrogen in fertilisers. A proportion of the nitrogen in these inputs is volatilised into the air as ammonia.
Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) are emitted as gases from the use of a wide array of products including paints, paint strippers, glues, adhesives and cleaning agents. Several constituents of gasoline are important NMVOCs, which are emitted by combustion and evaporation. NMVOCs also arise as a product of incomplete combustion of other fuels, especially solid fuels and as such there are significant emissions from residential fuel combustion. The principal environmental problem associated with NMVOC is their contribution to the formation of ground level ozone. Fugitive emissions are intentional or unintentional releases of gases from anthropogenic activities. Intentional or unintentional release of greenhouse gases may also occur during the extraction, processing and delivery of fossil fuels to the point of final use.
Greenhouse gases contribute to global warming or the greenhouse effect. There are seven such gases regulated by international agreements:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC)
• Perfluorocarbons (PFC)
• Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)
• Nitrogen Trifluoride (NF3)
Greenhouse gases are controlled by the following global environmental agreements: The Kyoto Protocol First Commitment Period running from 2008-2012; A second Kyoto Commitment Period which runs from 2013-2020 known as the Doha Amendment; and an agreement signed in Paris in 2015 which comes into force in 2020.
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997 and entered into force in February 2005.
The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialised countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012. Ireland’s Kyoto First Commitment Period target was 62.837 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent in 2012 or +13% compared with 1990.
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was adopted. The amendment includes new commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over the 2013-2020 period and revised list of greenhouse gases (now including Nitrogen Trifluoride NF3) to be reported on by Parties in the second commitment period. Ireland’s emissions target for the second Kyoto Commitment Period was -20% in 2020 compared with 2005.
The number of sectors used in this indicator has changed from six to ten since the last Sustainable Development Indicator report in 2015. The ten sectors are as follows:
1. Energy Industries (electricity generation, waste to energy incineration, oil refining, briquetting manufacture and fugitive emissions).
2. Residential (combustion for domestic space and hot water heating).
3. Manufacturing Combustion (combustion for Manufacturing industries).
4. Commercial Services (combustion for Commercial Services space and hot water heating).
5. Public Services (combustion for Public services space and hot water heating).
6. Transport (combustion of fuel used in road, rail, navigation, domestic aviation and pipeline gas transport).
7. Industrial Processes (process emissions from mineral, chemical, metal industries, non-energy products and solvents).
8. F-Gases (gases used in refrigeration, air conditioning and semiconductor manufacture).
9. Agriculture (emissions from fertiliser application, ruminant digestion, manure management, agricultural soils and fuel used in agriculture/forestry/fishing).
10. Waste (emissions from solid waste disposal on land, solid waste treatment (composting), wastewater treatment, waste incineration and open burning of waste).
This is defined as land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 metres and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.
1. Forest is determined both by the presence of trees and the absence of other predominant land uses. The trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 metres in situ.
2. Includes areas with young trees that have not yet reached but which are expected to reach a canopy cover of 10 percent and tree height of 5 metres. It also includes areas that are temporarily unstocked due to clear-cutting as part of a forest management practice or natural disasters and which are expected to be regenerated within 5 years. Local conditions may, in exceptional cases, justify that a longer time frame is used.
3. Includes forest roads, firebreaks and other small open areas; forest in national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas such as those of specific environmental, scientific, historical, cultural or spiritual interest.
4. Includes windbreaks, shelterbelts and corridors of trees with an area of more than 0.5 hectares and width of more than 20 metres.
5. Includes abandoned shifting cultivation land with a regeneration of trees that have, or are expected to reach, a canopy cover of 10 percent and tree height of 5 metres.
6. Includes areas with mangroves in tidal zones, regardless of whether this area is classified as land area or not.
7. Includes rubber-wood, cork oak, energy wood and Christmas tree plantations.
8. Includes areas with bamboo and palms provided that land use, height and canopy cover criteria are met.
9. Excludes tree stands in agricultural production systems, such as fruit tree plantations (incl. olive orchards) and agro-forestry systems when crops are grown under tree cover.
River water is the principal source of drinking water in Ireland. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducts an assessment of river water quality every three years on behalf of Local Authorities. Samples are taken from over 3,000 locations around Ireland. These biological surveys began in 1971. River water quality is classified into four quality classes based on a scheme of biotic indices, which codify the characteristic changes induced in flora and fauna of rivers and streams in the presence of pollution. Unpolluted waters include pristine waters and also waters of a less high but acceptable standard. Slightly polluted and moderately polluted waters are mainly characterised by eutrophication and may not be able to support fish survival. Seriously polluted waters are characterised by the presence of high concentrations of biodegradable organic waste. These waters are of very little beneficial use.
Nitrates can cause serious problems when they end up in groundwater or surface water by causing increased growth of algae and eutrophication of water systems. The drop in oxygen that comes with the presence of nitrates can lead to fish kills. The problem stems from the practice of spreading animal wastes – which contain nitrates in high concentrations – on land to improve crops and pastures.
These pollutants can also affect humans. For example, when nitrates in drinking water are metabolised in the stomach this can lead to the formation of nitrous amines, which are thought to be carcinogenic.
A Building Energy Rating (BER) is an indication of the energy performance of a dwelling (represented in units of kWh/m2/annum). Actual energy performance will depend on how the occupants operate the dwelling. A BER is based on the characteristics of major components of the dwelling including: wall, roof and floor dimensions; window and door sizes and orientations, as well as the construction type and insulation, ventilation and air tightness features; the system for heat supply (including renewable energy), distribution, and control; and the type of lighting. The BER certificate indicates the annual primary energy usage and carbon dioxide emissions associated with the provision of space heating, water heating, ventilation, lighting, and associated pumps and fans. The energy use is calculated on the basis of a notional family with a standard pattern of occupancy - hence data in this release giving average primary energy use or carbon dioxide emissions are not based on actual data. A BER only covers electricity used for heating, lighting and ventilation with associated pumps and fans. Electricity used for cooking, refrigeration, laundry and other appliance use are not included.
Since 1st January 2009, a BER certificate and advisory report is compulsory for all homes being sold or offered for rent. A BER is also required for new dwellings that apply for planning permission on or after 1st January 2007. A BER certificate is required to avail of the grants for energy-efficiency improvements to the home that are provided under the Better Energy Homes scheme.
Total Primary Energy Requirement (TPER) is a measure of all energy consumed, including that consumed and/or lost in transformation and transmission/distribution processes (e.g. electricity generation transmission and distribution; oil refining). TPER = Indigenous Production + Imports - Exports - Marine Bunkers - Stock Change. The figures are expressed in terms of kilotonnes of oil equivalent.
In calculating renewable transport, weightings can be applied for double certificates in accordance with the Article 21(2) of Directive (2009/28/EC) where the contribution made by biofuels produced from wastes, residues, non-food cellulosic material, and ligno-cellulosic material shall be considered to be twice that made by other biofuels.
Energy dependency shows the extent to which an economy relies upon imports in order to meet its energy needs. The indicator is calculated as net imports divided by the sum of gross inland energy consumption plus bunkers.
New vehicles registered after 1st July 2008 are subject to motor vehicle duty based on CO2 emissions rather than on engine size, as was previously the case. The table below sets out the seven separate band classes.
|
Band |
CO2 emissions – grams per km |
|
A |
0-120 g |
|
B |
More than 120 g/km up to an including 140 g/km |
|
C |
More than 140 g/km up to an including 155 g/km |
|
D |
More than 155 g/km up to an including 170 g/km |
|
E |
More than 170 g/km up to an including 190 g/km |
|
F |
More than 190 g/km up to an including 225 g/km |
|
G |
More than 225 g/km |
Municipal waste means household waste as well as commercial and other waste that, because of its nature or composition, is similar to household waste. It excludes municipal sludge and effluents. Municipal waste consists of three main elements - household, commercial (including non-process industrial waste) and street cleansing waste (street sweepings, street bins, municipal parks and cemeteries maintenance, waste, litter campaign material).
Packaging is used to contain, protect and present goods. Packaging is made from such materials as cardboard, paper, glass, plastic, steel, aluminium, wood and composite materials such as those used in milk and juice cartons.
Recovery means any operation the principal result of which is waste serving a useful purpose by replacing other materials which would otherwise have been used to fulfil a particular function, or waste being prepared to fulfil that function, in the plant or in the wider economy.
Adopted in 1992, the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora aims to promote the maintenance of biodiversity, taking account of economic, social, cultural and regional requirements. It forms the cornerstone of Europe’s nature conservation policy with the Birds Directive and establishes the EU wide Natura 2000 ecological network of protected areas, safeguarded against potentially damaging developments.
Member States are required to designate Special Areas of Conservation (SAC’s) for threatened species and habitats. This ensures the conservation of a wide range of rare, threatened or endemic species, including around 450 animals and 500 plants. Some 200 rare and characteristic habitat types are also targeted for conservation in their own right.
The Common Bird Index in 2014 was based on 55 common and widespread breeding farmland birds which are monitored as part of the Countryside Birds Survey.
The Countryside Bird Survey (CBS) is Ireland’s national monitoring scheme for common and widespread breeding birds. It is funded by the National Parks and Wildlife Service and is coordinated by Birdwatch Ireland. It has been running since 1998.
The CBS is based on a random and stratified sampling design, where squares were randomly selected and allocated in sequence within eight regions. Approximately 300 survey sites (one kilometre squares) throughout the country are surveyed every year and all birds seen and heard are recorded. These squares are located in a variety of habitats because of the random nature of the selection of squares, but squares with more than 50% water have been excluded. Accordingly, it is expected the species recorded reflect the diversity of habitats available in Ireland. Trends are generated for all species that occur in a minimum of 30 squares on average. Below this threshold, the trend result is much less robust. Consequently trends are produced only for those species that are relatively widespread. Species with more localised distributions are not included in the trend analyses. Accordingly, most of the species that are included are habitat generalists.
While overall trends have been broadly stable since monitoring began, it is important to note the following caveats: acute declines are known to have occurred in several of Ireland’s breeding bird populations before 1998, driven largely by the intensification of agricultural practices; and the CBS cannot accurately monitor the trends in species with scarce distributions.
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